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Table 1 Sample characteristics for the cohort with a mental illness and the general homeless cohort a

From: Factors associated with higher healthcare costs in a cohort of homeless adults with a mental illness and a general cohort of adults with a history of homelessness

Characteristics

Cohort with a mental illness

General homeless cohort

Missing data

Total Sample (n = 525)

Top 5% (n = 160)

p-value b

Total Sample (n = 655)

Top 5% (n = 108)

p-value b

%

Predisposing Factors

Age

      

  Mean ± SE

39.9 ± 11.8

40.0 ± 12.4

0.939

42.9 ± 10.5

44.1 ± 9.7

0.220

 

  Median (IQR)

41 (30–48)

41 (30–48)

0.871

44 (36–50)

45 (38–50)

0.171

 

Age Group

      

  18–34

34.9%

34.4%

0.815

21.8%

16.7%

0.351

 

  35–49

44.4%

46.3%

 

51.3%

53.7%

  

  50+

20.8%

19.4%

 

26.9%

29.6%

  

Gender

      

  Female

30.1%

32.5%

0.426

30.7%

38.9%

0.043

 

  Male

69.9%

67.5%

 

69.3%

61.1%

  

Marital status

2–3%

  Single, never married

69.5%

73.5%

0.20

60.6%

58.3%

0.474

 

  Widowed, separated, divorced

27.5%

22.4%

 

28.0%

32.4%

  

  Partnered, married

3.0%

4.1%

 

11.3%

9.3%

  

Race

1–2%

  Black

32.4%

28.8%

0.133

12.0%

4.7%

< 0.001

 

  Other racialized groups

30.9%

28.1%

 

23.2%

14.4%

  

  White

36.7%

43.1%

 

64.8%

80.9%

  

Place of birth

1–2%

  Canada

55.0%

58.7%

0.288

81.8%

89.8%

0.018

 

Education

2–3%

  Graduated high school

51.3%

56.4%

0.139

56.9%

50.9%

0.17

 

Employment Status

2–3%

  Currently employed

4.2%

<  3.8%

0.555

10.4%

<  5.6%

0.032

 

Housing status c

      

  Precariously or vulnerably housed

7.4%

4.4%

0.08

50.1%

51.9%

0.686

 

  Homeless

92.6%

95.6%

 

49.9%

48.1%

  

Years spent homeless

4–5%

  Mean ± SE

5.21 ± 6.10

4.9 ± 6.0

0.509

5.32 ± 6.22

6.4 ± 6.9

0.049

 

  Median (IQR)

3 (1–7)

3 (1–6)

0.329

3 (1–7)

4 (1–10)

0.097

 

   ≥ 2 years spent homeless

61.7%

60.6%

0.734

58.6%

61.1%

0.566

 

Criminal behaviour (Past 6 to 12 months)

39.2%

40.7%

0.663

37.1%

42.1%

0.242

1–2%

Victimization (Past 6 to 12 months)

35.1%

39.2%

0.21

37.2%

43.9%

0.116

2–3%

Diagnosed mental illness

 Psychotic disorder

43.0%

47.5%

0.173

13.3%

29.6%

< 0.001

 

 Other disorder

57.0%

52.5%

 

25.6%

31.5%

  

 No disorder

 

61.1%

38.9%

  

Problematic alcohol use (Past 12 months)

45.1%

41.3%

0.235

20.2%

27.8%

0.031

Problematic drug use (Past 12 months)

50.7%

43.1%

0.022

35.9%

52.8%

< 0.001

Smoking status

2–3%

 Current, daily smoker

65.1%

59.1%

0.066

75.5%

76.6%

0.757

 

Enabling Factors

Regular source of care

  Yes

66.7%

65.3%

0.664

59.2%

76.9%

< 0.001

1–2%

Perceived barrier to care (Past 6 to 12 months)

40.2%

36.0%

0.211

35.2%

36.8%

0.703

2–3%

Food insecurity (not enough food)

51.8%

49.0%

0.416

32.2%

34.3%

0.609

1–2%

Acute mental health care (past 12 months)

  

< 0.001

  

< 0.001

  Hospital admission or emergency department visit

52.8%

77.5%

 

20.2%

50.0%

  

Acute non-mental health care (past 12 months)

  

< 0.001

  

< 0.001

  Hospital admission or emergency department visit

62.1%

77.5%

 

47.0%

63.9%

  

Need Factors

Perceived general health

1–2%

  Poor

19.2%

22.7%

0.209

13.1%

25.0%

< 0.001

 

  Fair

31.7%

26.7%

 

28.9%

30.6%

  

  Good, very good, excellent

49.1%

50.7%

 

58.0%

44.4%

  

Chronic conditions (administrative data)

      

  Mean ± SE

0.59 ± 0.84

0.7 ± 0.9

0.005

0.57 ± 0.85

1.0 ± 1.1

< 0.001

 

  Median (IQR)

0 (0–1)

0 (0–1)

0.008

0 (0–1)

1 (0–2)

< 0.001

 

Chronic conditions (survey data)

1–2%

 Mean ± SE

1.01 ± 1.28

1.1 ± 1.5

0.191

1.06 ± 1.25

1.6 ± 1.5

< 0.001

 

 Median (IQR)

1 (0–1)

1 (0–2)

0.781

1 (0–2)

1 (0–3)

< 0.001

 

Any Missing Data d

15.4%

21.9%

0.004

7.9%

6.5%

0.54

 
  1. aCost gradient cut-offs were applied based on the general Ontario population thresholds: Rosella et al. High-cost healthcare users in Ontario, Canada: demographic, socio-economic, and health status characteristics. BMC Health Serv Res, 2014; 14, 532.
  2. bChi-square tests, analysis of variance, and Kruskal Wallace tests were used to compare the top 5% of consumers to the bottom 95% of consumers (α = 0.05).
  3. cSmall cell sizes of < 6 were reported as the equivalent percent.
  4. dAny missing data does not include chronic conditions as administrative data was available