Table 1 Summary of study designs and interventions

1

Anderson et al. 2003 [15]

98.5 % of intervention group patients are Type 2; 100 % of control group patients are Type 2

n _I  = 67, n _C  = 65; African Americans; Patients with normal or mild eye exam; Detroit metropolitan area; United States (US).

Randomized Control Trial (RCT); Measurement: 12 months (mos).

Letter and phone reminder

2

Austin and Wolfe 2011 [24]

Not given

n _I  = 464, n _C  = 693; without HbA1c or LDL-C prior 12 mos; Midwestern university system; US.

Quasi-experimental; Measurement: 12 mos.

Letter reminder with a financial incentive

3

Avdal et al. 2011 [61]

Type 2

n _I  = 61, n _C  = 61; diagnosis at least 6 mos, > 18 yrs old, on insulin, HbA1c > 7 %, completed diabetes education, can use computer and internet, and volunteered to participate; Turkey.

RCT; Measurements: baseline and 6 mos.

Web-based

Exclusion: advanced retinopathy or neuropathy.

4

Bailie et al. 2004 [62]

Type 2

n _B  = 137, n ₆  = 137, n ₁  = 133, n ₂  = 123, n ₃  = 146; Aboriginal people, Australia.

Follow-up study over 3 years; Measurements: baseline, 6 mos, and year 1, 2, and 3.

Electronic Health Record (EHR); Evidence-based Guidelines

5

Benhamou et al. 2007 [63]

Type 1

n = 30; ≥ 18 years old, on external insulin pump for 3 mos, and HbA1c 7.5 %-10 %; France.

Bicenter, open-label, randomized, two-period crossover study; 6 mos with SMS (short message service) followed by 6 mos without SMS or reverse sequence; Measurements: baseline and two 6-month periods.

Web-based; SMS

Exclusion: retinopathy, pregnancy, unable to use software, out of mobile phone network, or unwilling to do 4 SMBG tests/day.

6

Bond et al. 2006 [64]

Not given

n = 15; diabetes, age 60 or older; Washington, US.

Randomized in the first phase, pilot study

Web-based

7

Bond et al. 2007 [36]

87 % Type 1, 13 % Type 2

n _I  = 31;n _C  = 31; ≥ 60 years old; having diagnosed with diabetes for at least 1 year, living independently in the community, fluency in English, West coast university health system; US.

RCT; Randomized using two-tier strata (above and below 7.5 % HbA1c) and gender. Intervention subjects participated in one of two phases (each phase lasting one year); Measurements: baseline and 6 mos.

Web-based; Behavioral

Exclusion: mod/severe cognitive, visual, or physical impairment or severe co-morbid disease.

8

Carter et al. 2011 [37]

Type 2

n _I  = 26, n _C  = 21; type 2 diabetes 2 yrs prior to study, ≥ 18 yrs old, African American, 8th grade reading level, residing in Washington, DC, willing provider; US.

RCT; Measurements: baseline and 9 mos.

Web-based; Behavioral

Exclusion: visually or hearing impaired, non-English speaking, on dialysis or psychotropic meds.

9

Cavan et al. 2003 [65]

Type 1

n = 6; type 1 diabetes and attended one-hour training session; United Kingdom

Pilot study; Measurements: baseline, 3 and 6 mos, and year 1 and 2.

Web-based

10

Cherry et al. 2002 [46]

Not given

n = 169; indigent or economically disadvantaged adults, competent, have telephone, can read or have reading assistance, reside and have physician in Mercy Health Center, Laredo, TX service area; US.

Cohort; Measurements: baseline, quarterly for 2 quarters and 12 mos.

Web-based; Telephone data line; Behavioral

11

Cho et al. 2006 [57]

Type 2

n _I  = 40, n _C  = 40; ≥ 30 yrs old, > 6 mos in center; South Korea.

Prospective, RCT; Measurements: baseline, 3-month intervals up to 30 mos.

Web-based

Exclusion: disabling conditions, severe diabetes complications, intensified insulin regimen, no internet access, unwilling, or in similar programs.

12

Cho et al. 2009 [66]

Type 2

Internet: n = 37; diabetes phone: n = 38; internet access and uses mobile phone/SMS; South Korea.

Randomized, non-inferiority with active-controlled period; Measurements: baseline to 3 mos.

Diabetes Phone; Web-based; SMS

Exclusion: heart failure, liver enzymes 2x normal, renal disease (creatinine > 1.5 mg/dL), in similar programs.

13

Cho et al. 2011 [67]

Type 2

n _I  = 35, n _c  = 36; age ≥ 40; HbA1c from 7.0 to 11.0 %; followed at least 6 months in a public healthcare post in rural areas of Chung-ju, Korea.

RCT; Measurements: Baseline and at 3 months.

Web-based; Phone call; Performance feedback

Exclusion: diagnosed or suspected disease of liver, pancreas, endocrine organ, kidney; ischemic heart disease; cerebrovascular disease; creatinine >0.133 mmol/l; intensive insulin regimen; unable to attend regularly.

14

Chumbler et al. 2005 [21]

Not given

n _I  = 400, n _C  = 400; ≥ 2 Veterans Administration (VA) hospitalizations or emergency visits in last year, telephone access, non-institutionalized; Florida, Puerto Rico and Georgia; US.

Retrospective, concurrent matched cohort; Measurements: 12 mos before and after.

Web-based; Telephone data line

15

Ciemins et al. 2009 [52]

Not given

n = 495; adult, provider visit in last year; central/eastern Montana and northern Wyoming; US.

Pre-post intervention, cohort; Measurements: 2 year baseline and two consecutive 2 year intervention periods.

EHR; Registry; Patient and provider report cards; Evidence-based guidelines

Exclusion: gestational or steroid-induced diabetes, nursing home resident, prednisone use > 2 mos, or seen by endocrinologist for care and testing.

16

de Grauw et al. 2002 [19]

Type 2

n = 432 baseline, n = 594 follow-up; type 2 diabetes; Nijmegen Academic Research Network, the Netherlands.

Multicenter cross-sectional; Measurements: baseline and 6 yrs.

Registry; Phone reminder

17

Derose et al. 2009 [25]

Type 1 or 2 (based on ICD-9 codes)

n _I.1  = 2916, n _I.2  = 1934, n _I.3  = 1933, n _I.4  = 2199, n _I.5  = 2200, n _C  = 1875; no HbA1c, LDL-C, and urinary microalbumin tests in > 1 yr, and birthday in 3 mos; Southern California Kaiser Permanent; US.

RCT; Measurements: 2 consecutive 3-month periods.

Letter and phone reminder

18

Dijkstra et al. 2005 [54]

32 % of intervention group patients are Type 1, 33 % of control group patients are Type 1

n _I  = 351, n_C = 418 patients; n _I  = 4 n _C  = 5 hospitals; n _I  = 22, n _C  = 20 internists; the Netherlands.

Clustered, RCT; Measurements: baseline and post-intervention (time varied per indicator)

Patient-held record (PHR); Evidence-based guidelines

19

Edelman et al. 2010 [34]

Not given

n _I  = 133, n _C  = 106; hypertension and diabetes, on diabetes medication, HbA1c > 7.5 % and systolic BP > 140 mm Hg or diastolic BP > 90 mm Hg; North Carolina and Virginia, US.

RCT; Measurements: study midpoint (6.8 mos) and completion (12.8 mos).

Financial incentive; Group visit

Exclusion: seen by endocrine clinic in past 6 mos, hospitalized for psychosis in past 3 yrs, cognitively impaired, or severe chronic illness.

20

Edwards et al. 2012 [17]

Type 1 or 2 (based on ICD-9 codes)

n _I  = 94, n _C  = 210; age 18 and 85 yrs; diabetes patients who were scheduled for appointments with a primary care provider between 08/2010 and 04/2011; University of Oklahoma Family Medicine Center (FMC) in Oklahoma City, US.

RCT; Measurements: 1 year before the intervention, and immediate at intervention

Phone call; Evidence-based guidelines

Exclusion: pregnant; recently seen in group visits; diabetes managed by a provider outside the FMC.

21

Farmer et al. 2005 [68]

Type 1

n _I  = 47, n _C  = 46; United Kingdom; age 18–30 yrs, basal bolus insulin, last 2 HbA1c tests 8 -11 %.

RCT, parallel-group; Measurements: baseline, 4 and 9 mos.

Web-based; SMS

Exclusion: avoid tight glycemic control, another severe disease, cannot do SMBG, or other family member in trial.

22

Fischer et al. 2011 [13]

Type 1 or 2 (based on ICD-9 codes)

Mailed report cards: n _I  = 2728, n _C  = 2729; Printable report cards: n _I  = 2357, n _C  = 3100; Provider report cards: n _I  = 2893, n _C  = 2564; >17 yrs, at least one visit to clinic within 18 mos; Denver, CO; US.

Nested randomized trial; Measurements: baseline and 13 mos.

Registry; Patient and provider report cards; Mail reminder

Exclusion: >75 yrs, no mail address, cannot speak English or Spanish

23

Fischer et al. 2012 [69]

Not given

n = 47; age ≥ 18 yrs; diabetes, have cell phone; fluent in English or Spanish; regularly receive healthcare at a federally qualified community health center in Denver, Colorado, US.

Quasi-experimental; Measurement: at 3 mos.

SMS; Phone call; Behavioral

24

Glasgow et al. 2003 [70]

Type 2

n = 320; live by self for ≥ 1 yr; have phone; read and write English; diabetes for at least 1 yr and not moving out of area next yr; Kaiser Colorado, US.

RCT; 3 intervention groups: basic information, tailored self-management and peer support. Measurements: baseline and 10 mos.

Web-based; Behavioral

25

Glasgow et al. 2004 [58]

Type 2

n _I  = 469, n _C  = 417 patients; n _I  = 24, n _C  = 28 physicians (all physicians in Diabetes Priority Program); type 2 diabetes, ≥ 25 yrs old, can read English; Colorado; US.

Two-group cluster, RCT; Measurements: baseline and 6 mos.

Web-based

26

Grant et al. 2008 [55]

Type 2

n _I  = 126 n _C  = 118 patients, n = 11 practices; HbA1c > 7 % in prior yr, active diabetes prescription, ≥ 1 visit within prior yr, active account with patient web-portal; eastern Massachusetts; US.

RCT; Measurements: baseline and 12 mos.

Web-based

27

Harno et al. 2006 [71]

Type 1 or 2

n _I  = 101, n _C  = 74; type 1 or type 2 diabetes; 2 university hospital outpatient clinics; Finland.

RCT; Measurements: baseline and 12 mos.

Web-based; SMS

28

Holbrook et al. 2009 [28]

Type 2

n _I  = 253, n _C  = 258; ≥ 18 yrs old, fluent in English and able to understand the study description; Ontario, Canada.

Pragmatic RCT; Measurements: baseline and 6 mos.

Web-based; Phone reminder, Behavioral

29

Hurwitz et al. 1993 [72]

Type 2

n = 187; non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus, ≤ 80 yrs old, attend clinic ≥ 2 yrs; United Kingdom.

RCT; Measurements: baseline and 2 yrs.

Letter and phone reminder

Exclusion: women of childbearing age or patients with significant diabetic complications.

30

Jones and Curry 2006 [50]

Type 2

n _I  = 58, n _C  = 115; 2 provider visits during study, and ≤ 1 provider visit in opposite group; Pennsylvania; US

Non-randomized clinical trial; historical control group; Measurements: baseline and within 16 mos after intervention.

Personal digital assistant; Provider reminder; Letter reminder; Evidence-based guidelines

31

HS Kim et al. 2005 [44]

Type 2

n = 42; able to do SBMG and self-injection of medication, access to web sites and cellular phone; South Korea.

Quasi-experimental, one group, pretest-posttest; Measurements: baseline and 12 weeks.

Web-based; SMS

Exclusion: severe illness, renal insufficiency (creatinine > 1.5 mg/dL) or on insulin pump.

32

HS Kim et al. 2006 [42]

Type 2

n = 33; ≥ 30 yrs old, can do SMBG tests and medication injection, can input data to web, internet access, and cellular phone; South Korea.

Quasi-experimental, one group, pretest-posttest; Measurements: baseline and 12 weeks.

Web-based; SMS

Exclusion: heart failure, hepatic dysfunction, renal insufficiency, on insulin pump or other diabetes web offer.

33, 34

HS Kim 2007 [39, 40]

Type 2

n _I  = 25, n _C  = 26; able to do SBMG and self-injection of medication, access to web sites and cellular phone; South Korea.

Control group, pretest-posttest, randomized by random permuted block design; Measurements: baseline, and 3 mos.

Web-based; SMS; Behavioral

Exclusion: severe illness, renal insufficiency, or on insulin pump.

35

HS Kim and Jeong 2007 [41]

Type 2

n _I  = 25, n _C  = 26; able to do SBMG and self-injection of medication, able to input data to web site, had home internet access, and cellular phone; South Korea.

Control group, pretest-posttest, randomized by random permuted block design; Measurements: baseline, 3, and 6 mos.

Web-based; SMS

Exclusion: severe illness, renal insufficiency, or on insulin pump.

36

HS Kim and Song 2008 [43]

Type 2

n _I  = 18, n _C  = 16; ≥ 30 yrs old, obese, able to do SBMG and self-medication, able to input data to web site, had home internet access, and cellular phone; South Korea.

Quasi-experimental, repeated measures, pretest-posttest; Measurements: baseline, 3, and 6 mos.

Web-based; SMS

Exclusion: heart failure, hepatic dysfunction, renal insufficiency, or on insulin pump.

37

SI Kim and HS Kim 2008 [73]

Type 2

n _I  = 18, n _C  = 16; able to do SBMG and self-injection of medication, access to web sites and cellular phone; South Korea.

Quasi-experimental, repeated measures, pretest-posttest; Measurements: baseline, 3, 6, 9, and 12 mos.

Web-based; SMS

Exclusion: severe illness, renal insufficiency, or on insulin pump.

38

Kirsh et al. 2007 [12]

Type 2

n _I  = 44, n _C  = 35; one or more of following: A1c > 9 %, SBP >160 mm Hg and LDL-c >130 mg/dl; Veterans Healthcare System; US.

Quasi-experimental, non-randomized concurrent controls; Measurements: baseline and 6 mos

Letter reminder

39

Kwon et al. 2004 [74]

Type 2

n _I  = 51, n _C  = 50; type 2 diabetes ≥ 1 yr, internet access, ≥ 30 yrs old; South Korea.

RCT; Measurements: baseline and 12 weeks.

Web-based

Exclusion: significant diseases likely to affect outcome (heart failure, hepatic dysfunction, renal insufficiency or on insulin pump).

40

Kwon et al. 2004 [45]

16.2 % Type 1, 82.7 % Type 2, 1.1 % secondary diabetes

n = 185; diabetes ≥ 1 yr, internet access; South Korea.

Non-randomized cohort; Measurements: baseline and 3 mos.

Web-based; SMS

Exclusion: significant diseases likely to affect outcome (hepatic or renal failure).

41

Lafata et al. 2002 [14]

Type 1 or 2 (based on ICD-9 codes)

n _I  = 1641, n _C  = 1668; in patient registry, ≥ 18 yrs and ≥ 2 diabetes visits or at least 1 pharmacy claim for diabetes drug in last 24 mos; Michigan, US

RCT; Measurements: 6 and 12 mos.

Letter reminder

42

Lin et al. 2007 [29]

Not given

n _I  = 33, n_C = 35; Canadian primary care center.

Historical cohort; Measurements: baseline and 3 years.

Phone reminder; Evidence-based guidelines; Longer appointments

Exclusion: no family doctor and those without at least 2 diabetic follow-up appointments.

43

Litzelman et al. 1993 [75]

Type 2

n _I  = 191, n _C  = 205; non-insulin dependent diabetes, ≥ 2 visits in prior yr, > 40 yrs old, diabetes diagnosis after age 30, 2 yrs with practice, and ideal or heavier than ideal body weight, at risk of lower-extremity amputation; Indianapolis; US.

RCT; Measurements: baseline and 12 mos.

Phone and postcard reminder; Behavioral

Exclusion: pregnancy, major psychiatric illness, dementia, terminal illness (death in 1 yr), renal failure, bilateral amputations and investigator’s patients.

44

Lorig et al. 2010 [76]

Type 2

n _I.1  = 209, n _I.2  = 186, n _I.3  = 395, n _C  = 238; aged ≥ 18 yrs, not pregnant or in cancer care, physician verified type 2 diabetes diagnosis and access to the Internet. Effort to recruit American Indians/Alaskan Natives; California; US.

RCT; Measurements: baseline, 6, and 18 mos.

Web-based

45

Maclean et al. 2009 [20]

Type 1 or 2

n _I  = 3886, n _C  = 3526 patients; n _I  = 70, n _C  = 62 physicians; n _I  = 30, n _C  = 34 practices; HbA1c in last 2 yrs; Vermont and New York; US.

RCT; Practices randomized in blocks by hospital laboratory; Measurements: 32 mos.

Registry; Decision support; Fax and Letter reminder

Exclusion: < 18 yrs, cognitive impairment or provider decision.

46

McCarrier et al. 2009 [77]

Type 1

n _I  = 41, n _C  = 36; 21–49 yrs old, ≥ 2 encounters and at least 1 HbA1c in prior yr, recent HbA1c >7% and reside in King or Snohomish County, Center, Washington; US.

Randomized, pretest-posttest trial; Measurements: 12 mos.

Web-based

47

McDermott et al. 2001 [32]

Not given

n = 282 patients at 8 intervention sites, n = 396 patients at 13 control sites; mostly Torres Strait Islanders, Australia

Randomized unblended, cluster trial; Measurements: baseline and 12 mos.

Registry; Evidence based guidelines

48

McDiarmid et al. 2001 [51]

Type 2

n = 258; urban family practice residency, Greensboro, North Carolina; US.

Non-randomized, before/after, retrospective chart audit; Measurements: baseline and 12 mos.

Evidence-based guidelines

49

McMahon et al. 2005 [78]

Not given

n _I  = 52, n _C  = 52; HbA1c ≥ 9 %, age > 18 yrs, understands written and spoken English, willingness to use notebook computer, glucose and BP devices; Boston VA Healthcare System; US.

RCT; Measurements: baseline, 3, 6, 9 and 12 mos.

Web-based

50

McMahon et al. 2012 [47]

Type 2

n _I.1  = 51, n _I.2  = 51, n _I.3  = 49; age > 25 yrs, HbA1c > 8.5 %, understand written and spoken English, access to phone, willingness to use laptop, and BP and glucose monitoring devices, have a VA-based primary care provider; Boston, MA; US.

RCT; Measurements: 3, 6, 9, and 12 mos.

Web-based; Phone calls; Performance feedback

51

Mehler et al. 2005 [79]

Type 2

n _I.1  = 415, n _I.2  = 146, n _C  = 323 patients at 12 primary care practices; age ≥ 40 yrs; Denver-metro area; US.

Stratified and randomized by practice type (family medicine, internal medicine or academic); Measurements: baseline and 15 mos.

Evidence-based guidelines

52

Meigs et al. 2003 [49]

Type 2

n _I  = 307 patients, n _I  = 12 providers; n _C  = 291 patients, n _C  = 14 providers; hospital-based staff-resident medical practice; Boston, Massachusetts; US.

RCT; Measurements: 12 mos pre-intervention and 12 mos post-intervention.

Web-based; Decision support; Evidence-based guidelines

53

Meulepas et al. 2007 [30]

Type 2

n _I  = 353 patients, n _I  = 51 providers; n _C  = 129 patients, n _C  = 27 providers; documented diabetes for > 4 yrs at start of study; The Netherlands

Controlled, non-randomized, before/after study with delayed intervention in control group; Measurements: 1 yr before intervention and 2 years after.

Phone reminder

54

Meulepas et al. 2008 [31]

Type 2

n _I  = 431 patients, n _I  = 23 providers; n _C  = 469 patients, n _C  = 28 providers; in the south of The Netherlands

Controlled, non-randomized study, before/after; Measurements: 1 yr before intervention and 2 years after.

Phone reminder

55

Moattari et al. 2013 [80]

97 % Type 1

n _I  = 24, n _C  = 24; have diabetes, need insulin, ability to use glucometer and inject insulin, ability to input data on a website, own cellphone; Shiraz, Iran.

RCT; Measurements: baseline and 3 mos.

Web-based; Phone; SMS

Exclusion: chronic disease or renal failure (creatinine > 1.5 mg/dl), use of insulin pump, pregnancy.

56

Moorman et al. 2012 [81]

Not given

n _C  = 19, n _I  = 18; Adult diabetic patients not working with a case manager, at least one request for a self-monitoring blood glucose log, Ohio, US

Cohort study; Measurements: 3 mos. before the intervention and 3 mos. after.

Letter reminder

Exclusion: No documented mailing address

57

Musacchio et al. 2011 [82]

Type 2

n = 1004; HbA1c < 7 %, ability to follow educational program, and clinical data for prior 12 mos; Italy.

Pre-post study; Measurements: baseline and 12 mos.

Tele-medicine (phone and internet); EHR; Behavioral

58

Nes et al. 2012 [83]

Type 2

n = 11; type 2 diabetes, no other inclusion/exclusion criteria reported; Oslo, Norway

Snowball sample pilot study; baseline and 3 mos.

Web-based; Performance feedback

59

Piette et al. 2000 [84]

Not given

n = 248; English or Spanish speaking adults; California; US.

Randomized control trial; Measurements: baseline and 12 mos.

Automated phone call

Exclusion: >75 yrs, psychotic, sensory impairment, or life expectancy <12 mos, on hypoglycemic medication, diabetes ≤ 6 mos, plan to stop clinic services during study period, no push-button phone.

60

Rai et al. 2011 [18]

Type 1 or 2 (based on ICD-9 codes)

n _I  = 1765, n _C  = 1315; 2 diabetes and hypertension ICD-9 codes in billing data in past 2 yrs; no provider visit in last 6 mos; Wisconsin; US.

Quasi-experimental; Measurement: 6 mos.

Phone reminder

Exclusion: patient without history of treatment by provider.

61

Ralston et al. 2009 [38]

Type 2

n _I  = 39, n _C  = 35; 18–75 yrs old, last HbA1c ≥ 7 %, at least two visits in prior year; University of Washington; US.

Randomized, single-centered, controlled trial with parallel group design; Measurements: 12 mos before intervention and 12 mos after.

Web-based; Decision support

Exclusion: in pilot, psychological illness, non-English speaking, resident as provider or mostly specialty care.

62

Ryan et al. 2013 [85]

Type 2

n _I  = 24; age 21 and older; established patient; seen at least once for diabetes management during the previous 12 months; Most recent A1c < 10; last A1c within last 6 months; a community health clinic in Miami, Florida, US.

Pretest-posttest; Measurements: baseline and 13 mos.

Web-based

Exclusion: Did not speak English; had an emergency room discharge or hospital admission for a diabetes-related complication during the 6 months before recruitment; were homeless or did not have control of the given living situation; had significant cognitive impairment or psychological distress; had known substance or alcohol abuse.

63

Sacco et al. 2009 [48]

Type 2

n _I  = 31, n _C  = 31; age18 – 65 yrs, reads and speaks English, reachable by phone, HbA1c > 6.5 %, cardiovascular risk factor; Florida; US

Randomized, pretest-posttest; Measurements: baseline and 6 mos.

Behavioral; Phone coaching

Exclusion: major medical/mental disorder.

64

Sadur et al. 1999 [22]

Type 1 or 2

16-75 yrs old, recent HbA1c > 8.5 % or no HbA1c in last year; Kaiser; California; US.

RCT; Measurements: baseline and 6 mos. Hospitalization rate measured 12 mos before intervention and 18 mos after.

Group visit; Phone; Behavioral

Exclusion: pregnancy, dementia, no English, cannot attend monthly meetings.

65

Seto et al. 2012 [16]

Type 1 or 2

n _I  = 580; age 18 and older; seen at the health center between July 1, 2009 and June 30, 2010; a primary care clinic in San Jose, California, US.

Pretest-posttest; Measurements: baseline and 7 mos.

Registry; Appointment reminder

Exclusion: No baseline A1c; gestational diabetes

66

DM Smith et al. 1987 [27]

Not given

n _I  = 425, n _C  = 429; patients with insulin or oral hypoglycemic agents prescribed, reported all care received at center, not residents of nursing home or other institution, ≥ 15 yrs old, visited clinic in last yr and had scheduled appointment to return to clinic; metropolitan Indianapolis; US.

RCT; Measurement: 2 yrs.

Letter and phone reminder

67

KE Smith et al. 2004 [86]

Type 1 or 2

n = 16; ≥ 18 yrs old, no unstable cardiac disease or organ transplantation, can read computer monitor, and HbA1c > 8.5 %; Georgetown University Hospital; US.

Non-randomized, prospective feasibility; Measurements: baseline and 6 mos.

Web-based

68

Song et al. 2009 [87]

Type 2

n _I.1  = 15, n _C  = 16; adults, new diagnosis type 2 diabetes, never attended formal self-management education by health professional or over internet; Seoul, Korea.

Quasi-experimental, non-equivalent control group, pretest-posttest; Measurements: baseline, 6 weeks, and 3 mos.

Web-based; Behavioral

69

Stone et al. 2012 [88]

Not given

n _I.1  = 21, n _I.2  = 23, n _I.3  = 28, n _I.4  = 29; age 18–79 yrs; diagnosis defined as 12 or more months of pharmacologic treatment for diabetes; HbA1c ≥ 7.5 %; no comorbid conditions indicating life expectancy of less than 5 years; private residence with telephone land line; VA Healthcare System, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, US.

RCT; pretest-posttest; Measurements: baseline, 3, and 6 mos.

Tele-monitoring (phone); Performance feedback

Exclusion: Did not have a telephone landline.

70

Subramanian et al. 2009 [23]

Type 2

n _I  = 3147, n _C  = 913; prescription refill for hypoglycemic agent without polycystic ovarian disease, HbA1c ≥ 9 % or elevated FBS ≥ 200 mg/dL; Indianapolis; US.

Retrospective, cohort; Measurements: 1 yr before intervention and 1 yr after.

Open access (OA)

Exclusion: missing all lab tests, vital signs, or visit data in study period.

71

Tang et al. 2013 [89]

Type 2

n _I  = 193, n _C  = 189; age ≥ 18 yrs; HbA1c ≥ 7.5 %; seen within the past 12 months; a not-for-profit healthcare organization in Palo Alto, California, US.

RCT; Measurements: Baseline, 6 and 12 mos.

Web-based; Performance feedback; EHR; Behavioral

Exclusion: initial diagnosis within the last 12 months; inability to speak or read English; lack of regular internet access; unwillingness to perform self-monitoring at home; diagnosis of a terminal disease and/or entry into hospice care; pregnancy, planning pregnancy or currently lactating; enrollment in another care management program; resident of a long-term facility; uninsured; plans to discontinue primary care at current location; family household member enrolled in EMPOWER-D study.

72

Thomas et al. 2007 [26]

Not given

n _I  = 78 resident physicians, n _C  = 39; Internal Medicine residents; Mayo Clinic, Minnesota; US.

RCT; Randomization stratified by clinic day across 5 practice sections; Measurements: baseline and completion including prior 6 mos for HbA1c and prior 12 mos for lipids.

Registry; Evidence-based guidelines; Performance feedback; Letter reminder

73

Tildesley et al. 2010 [90]

Type 2

n _I  = 24, n _C  = 23; on insulin alone or with oral hypo-glycemic medication, recent HbA1c >7.0 %, internet access, and training in SMBG; Vancouver, Canada

RCT; Measurements: baseline, 3 and 6 mos.

Web-based; Performance feedback

74

Weber et al. 2008 [53]

Not given

Gesinger Health System of 38 practice sites and > 20,000 diabetes patients >18 years old in 40-county region of central and northeastern Pennsylvania; US.

Retrospective, cohort; Measurements: baseline time period (12 mos before) and monthly after implementation of intervention for 12 mos.

Registry; Evidence-based guidelines; Provider reminder; Performance feedback

75

Yeh et al. 2006 [33]

Type 2

n _I  = 134, n _C  = 140; medical teaching hospital in Taipei, Taiwan

RCT; Measurements: pre-intervention and post-intervention (8 month follow-up).

Web-based; SMS;

76

Yoo et al. 2009 [91]

Type 2

n _I  = 57, n _C  = 54; age 30 and 70 yrs; hypertension and type 2 diabetes diagnoses in last year; HbA1c 6.5–10.0 %; BP > 130⁄80 mmHg; BMI ≥ 23.0 kg⁄m²; Seoul, Korea.

RCT; Measurements: base line and 3 mos.

Web-based; Phone reminder; Telephone data line; Automated performance feedback; SMS

Exclusion: Severe diabetic complications; liver dysfunction with enzymes >2.5x normal, or renal dysfunction, diagnoses of heart failure, angina, myocardial infarction, or stroke, pregnancy or lactation.

77

Yoon and HS Kim 2008 [92]

Type 2

n _I  = 25, n _C  = 26; ability to perform SBMG, access websites, and cellular phone with web access; university medical center, urban city of South Korea.

RCT, pretest-posttest; Measurements: baseline, 3, 6, 9, and 12 mos.

Web-based; SMS

Exclusion: severe illness, renal insufficiency with creatinine > 1.5 mg/dL or on insulin pump.